Collaboration Photography Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Collaboration Photography - Assignment Example The scene is mechanical, and captivating at the same time, and through right angle shoots outs the object confronts the subject directly and the use of light and shadow brings more focus on the object. Though people consider black and white photography is often treated as the poor relation of color, it can make a photo look captivating. A distraction brought out by color in the photo is eliminated by the use of the black and white photography; a studio brings out the best of the colors. In fact, the black and white boils to major concepts: removal of distraction, contrast, pattern, texture and lighting. Color photography unlike the black and white one does not effectively provide patterns, in fact, slight ones go unnoticed. On the other hand, a black and white Photoshop provides more vivid capturing patterns, as the viewer’s attention is more focused on the shapes formed by the elements in the

Fedex Express In Vietnam Commerce Essay

Fedex Express In Vietnam Commerce Essay This thesis aims to evaluate and formulate business strategy for FedEx Express in Vietnam to further promote the companys competitive advantages. Fred R. Davids Comprehensive strategic management Model is used for this strategic formulation. At the first stage of this process, FedEx Vietnam quantitative evaluations of internal, external environments and its Competitive Ability Profile are created. A strategic group of five managers and specialists who are knowledgeable in air express transportation industry is formed up to determine factors of each matrix and weight/ score of each attributes of these components. Data from this input stage shows the companys Internal Factor score shows companys weakest points are operating under agency contract. FedEx External Factor score reveals the company is responsive to external environment. However the level of responsiveness to competitors and administration style in Vietnam is not high. In Competitive Profile Matrix, FedEx ranks the second position among the four market leaders. The areas that company needs to look into for improvement is customer service and marketing. With the data from input stage, SWOT matrix and Grand strategy matrix are used to formulate all applicable strategies. At final stage of the formulation process, all alternative strategies that were selected in matching stage are put in Qualitative Strategic Planning Matrix (QSPM) to determine which strategies out of given alternative strategies are more attractive. With the result, the thesis goes to some recommended tactics for some key functions to implement the two selected strategies for FedEx in Vietnam. RATIONALE THE RESEARCH As an infrastructure service, air express transportation playing more and more important role in the global economy. In Vietnam, the economic booming and dramatic growth of international trade bring very high demands for air express transportation. This demand is critical in both terms of transportation capacity and quality of service. Being in Vietnam for more than 17 years, FedEx Express the world leading air express transportation company, has been operating under agency contract with Seabornes Logistic. This business model gave FedEx an excellent access to Vietnam market at start up. However after more than 17 years of development, in new business context with stronger competition and higher customer demand the company is facing with following challenges: Gap between customer needs and the ability of the operation team Various customer demand for value added service versus the current core products Harder competition from main competitors This situation requires FedEx VN to review its strategy for necessary adjustment in order to maintain the good growth and steadily expand its market share. And that is my purpose to choose this topic for my thesis. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The research has 3 main objectives: Review strategy formulation models and theories that are applicable to the practical business. Evaluate FedExs competition ability in the context of Vietnam air express industry. The research will propose recommendations for FedEx business strategy in Vietnam from now to the year 2018. This research will answer the following questions: Why FedEx need to change its business strategy in Viet Nam? What is attractive strategy for FedEx Vietnam to 2018? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Fred R. Davids strategy formulation framework is used for the strategy evaluation and selection. The model includes three stages: input stage, matching stage and decision stage. In the input stage, a team of strategists with participation of fifteen members from regional and FedEx Express Vietnam sales, marketing, customer service and operation management was formed up. The team discussed and agreed on list for internal factors (for Internal Factor Evaluation IFE Matrix), external factors (for External Factor Evaluation EFE matrix) and key success factors (for Competitiveness Profile Matrix). After the three matrices created, members of the team score weight and rate of each component factor independently. The collective IFE, EFE and CPM are made up by average the score from each team member. These matrices then are brought to team discussion for final review and comment. Secondary data from FedEx profiles, industry surveys/reports and related information from Internet was used for the team analysis and evaluation. In the matching stage, outcome of the input stage is used to generate feasible alternative strategies. SWOT matrix and Grand Strategy Matrix are the two techniques in this stage. Result of matching stage is a consolidated work sheet with all alternative strategies. The strategies which are applicable in both matrices are picked up for analysis in Quantitative Strategic Planning Matrix (QSPM). In QSPM strategist can determine which strategy is most attractive to the firm base on attractive score. This is the last stage of the process. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS The research is for business strategy of FedEx Express in Vietnam from now to 2018. However strategic management is a continuous process containing of strategy formulation, implementation and evaluation. But in the scope of this research, the thesis will focus on some business strategies recommendation for FedEx Express Vietnam only. Given the scope of the thesis, detail implementation plan and evaluation/feedback for continuous improvement which are equally important to ensure a successful strategy were not deeply mentioned in the research. Without evaluation and feedback, management cannot get all employees involved in the strategic management process and hence cannot take full advantage of the process. CHAPTER I: THEORICAL FRAMEWORK Strategy and Business Strategy Definitions Strategy is not a new concept. In modern economy, when talking about business, strategy is usually the first thing to be mentioned. It is considered as cornerstone of business which determines failure or success of a firm. Thereve been a lot of definitions by scholars and researchers over the world. In an article What is strategy? on Havard Business Review in 1996  [1]  , Micheal E. Porter defined strategy as creating fit among a companys activities. The success of a strategy depends on doing many things well not just a few and integrating among them. If there is no fit among activities, there is no distinctive strategy and little sustainability. Regarding corporate strategy, a definition by Kenneth R. Andrews in 1998  [2]  supposed Corporate strategy is the pattern of decisions in a company that determines and reveals its objectives, purposes and goals and it produces the principle policies and plans for achieving those goals, and defines the range of business the company is to pursue. Strategy also defines the kind of economic and human contribution it intends to make to shareholders, employees, customers and communities. Another definition by John A. Pearce in 2000, a strategy reflects companys awareness of how, when and where it should compete, against whom it should compete and for what purpose it should compete. In all mentioned definitions, strategy and business strategy are almost the same in a corporate or entrepreneur scope. So, in general, a business strategy defines how a business/firm will go to succeed in its industry and market against its competitors. So, it should represent the ways that the management can make to define and secure the future of that business. In particular, a business strategy defines the scope of business, objectives, offering values, competitive advantages to meet customer needs as well as succeed now and in the future. Furthermore, a business strategy should include both objectives to be accomplished and the actions must be done to follow that direction. Business Strategy Management Business strategy management is defined as the set of decisions and actions that result in the formulation and implementation of plan designed to achieve a companys objectives. In general, business strategy management process includes three steps: Figure 1: Strategy management process Source: Strategic Management, Statistic Publishing House 2007  [3]   The formulation step includes analysis of current situation, forecast of future status to select and set up an appropriate strategy. Implementation is a process to achieve strategic target(s) by using strategy formulation that set out in previous step. To make the strategy working well, an important step is evaluate and adjustment. At this phase, the implementation is analyzed to see if there is any area that firms need to change to make the strategy more adaptable. Business strategy management helps enterprise clearly determines its objectives and how to archive it. It is instrumental in archiving high performance, cost effective and action oriented. With setting up of short term objectives in supporting for long-term ones, the process involves all members of the company, from front line employee to senior management level. This in return will enhance the firm to prevent troubles. Manager will get support from subordinates in forecasting of the strategic planning and in monitoring of the implementation stage. The involvement of employees in strategic formulation also improves their knowledge of the productivity reward relationship in all strategic plans hence, it heightens their motivation. The strategy management also helps the firm better adapt to changes of environment. The movement of environment, especially for those fast moving factors, usual creates opportunities as well as risks to the firm. Continuous strategic management which requires managers to analyze and forecast of the near and far future environments, helps manager to better manage and make the best of opportunities while minimize the risk that firm may have to face with. However, business strategy management process usually requires a lot of time and effort from managers. This might has a negative impact to operational responsibilities. Manager must be trained to minimize this impact by scheduling their duties to allow necessary time for strategic activities. Business Strategy Formulation Process: To give out strategic decision, it requires a comprehensive study on internal and external environments of a firm in regard to the firm objectives. Going to further details of the formulation process, it can be divided into 3 stages: Figure 2: Strategy formulation process Source: Strategic management concept and case, Fred R. David 2007  [4]   Input stage In this stage, firm has to gather all basic input information that is required to formulate strategy. They include External Factor Evaluation Matrix (EFE), Internal Factor Evaluation Matrix (IFE) and Competitive Profile Matrix (CPM). External Factor Evaluation: EFE summaries and evaluates both macro and industry (micro) environments. Base on that evaluation, strategist can determine opportunities and threats to have appropriate solution. The aim is to promote opportunities and avoid or reduce impact of the threats. Macro Environment: PEST model is a good tool for evaluation. The components of this model include: Political: The direction and stability of the political factors are major consideration of managers in formulation strategy. Political factors define legal and regulatory frame in which the firm operates in. It includes law and regulation on fair trade, minimum wage, pollution, patent, trade mark and many other actions. Economics: This regarding the nature, environment and direction the countrys economy in which a company operates. The factors to be evaluated include interest rate, inflation rate, finance policy, unemployment, risk level of investment, level of integration of the economy to world economy or to international organization that it is member of, trade balance, GDP growth rate and trends in growth of each economic sector. Social: demography, social structure, life style, education, religion, etc are social factors that affect a firm. Technology: Technological change can have a big impact on the industry that a firm operates. Creative technological adaptations can lead to possibilities for new products, for improvement of existing product. Industry environment: Michael Porters Five Force Model is the tool for this analysis. Competitors: This is the major determinant of competitiveness of the industry. Factors to be evaluated are number of competitor, rate of industry growth, economic of scale, sustainable competitive advantages and fixed cost allocation per value added etc. Suppliers: The bargaining power of suppliers is measured by determining supplier switching cost versus the firm switching cost, degree of differentiation of inputs, present of substitute inputs. Customers: Bargaining power of customers is the ability of customer to force prices down, ask for more higher quality service and play competitors off each other. The level of this power depends on customer volume, switching cost, availability of substitute products and differentiation of products. New entrants: The new entrants bring threat of higher level of competition. This threat is measured through barriers to entry, switching cost, economics of scale, product differentiation, capital requirement etc. Substitute products: The existence of replacement product brings in threat of customer to switch to other alternatives. The determined factors are relative price of substitute, customer propensity to substitute, buyer switching cost, product differentiation. Figure 3: Industry environment (Porter Five Forces Model) Porters Five Forces Source: Mindtool.com  [5]   After gathering information, all external factors are quantitatively evaluated with weight and rating score. Weight of a factor would indicate the relative importance of the factor to be successful in the firms industry. A weight assign to a factor can be from 0 to 1 with condition that total weight of all factors is 1. Rating score measures responsive level of the firm to respective factor. It ranges from 1 to 4 with 1 = poor response, 2= below average response, 3 = above average response and 4 = superior response. Figure 4: Steps to develop EFE matrix Select key external factors. Weigh importance of the factors from 0 to 1. Total weight of all factors must be equal to 1 Rate the level of response of the firm to each external factor from 1 to 4 with 4 is the highest rate Calculate weighted score for each factor (TAS). TAS = factor weight * rate Total weighted score for the firm The total weighted score (TAS) is equal to weighing score time rating score. The firms EFE TAS is sum of all external factors. This TAS shows the responsiveness of the firm to the external environment. If the score is 2.5 up, it means firm response to the environment well. Internal Factor Evaluation IFE summaries and evaluates major strengths and weaknesses in all areas of a firm. This includes: Human resource: The areas to be evaluated are ability to formulate and implement the firms strategy of it management at all level, readiness of the work force to implement that strategy, capacity of the organization structure in adapting with the changes of business environment. Tangible asset: Finance resource, facility, vehicle, raw material, etc. These items are normally reflected on company balance sheet Intangible asset: These are not assets that we can touch and see, but they are very often critical in creating the firms competitive advantages like brand name, company reputation, technical knowledge, patent and trade mark. Functional groups: Capacity and performance of each function of the firm like marketing, sales, finance, RD, operation, quality managementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Similarly to EFE matrix, the IFE matrix is developed via 5 steps Figure 5: Steps to develop IFE matrix Select key internal factors. Weigh the importance of the factors from 0 to 1. Total weight of all factors must be equal to 1 Rate the level of response of the firm to each internal factor from 1 to 4 with 4 is the highest rate Calculate weighted score for each factor (TAS). TAS = factor weight * rate Total weighted score for the firm The total IFE TAS of the firm shows how strong the firm is. If it is from 2,5 upward, it means the firm is in strong status. Competitive profile Matrix CPM identifies a firm major competitor and their particular strengths and weaknesses in relation to a sample firms strategic position (David, 2007). Different from EFE, critical success factor in a CPM are broader. They dont include specific or fact data and even just focus on internal issues. The critical success factors in a Competitive Profile Matrix also are not grouped into opportunities and threats as they are in EFE. This provides internal strategic information that is also very important to the firm. Matching stage By matching and aligning key external and internal factors, this stage will generate all feasible alternative strategies. The technique use in this stage includes Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats (SWOT) Matrix, Grand strategy Matrix. Other matrices like Strategic Position and Action Evaluation (SPACE) Matrix, Internal-External (IE) Matrix, Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix can be considered to use in this matching stage. SWOT Matrix The SWOT analysis was made popular by Andrew (1965). Through evaluating of components of a firms internal and external environments, this analysis enable the firm to approach its most feasible and applicable strategy to get its strategic objectives. By answer the question how the company makes the most of its strengths, circumvent its weaknesses, capitalize on its opportunities and manage its threats, SWOT model provides an efficient tool for the company long range planning base on qualitative analysis rather than merely base on quantitative forecast (Edmund P.  Learned, 1965). SWOT matrix presents a mechanism for facilitating the linkage among company strengths weaknesses threats and opportunities in the market place. It also provide framework for strategy formulation with its 4 types of strategies: SO (Strengths-Opportunities) strategy, WO (Weaknesses-Opportunities) strategy, ST (Strength-Threats) strategy and WT (Weaknesses-Threats) strategy (Figure6). Figure 6: SWOT/TOWS Strategic Alternatives Matrix External Opportunities (O) 1. 2. 3. 4. External Threats (T) 1. 2. 3. 4. Internal Strengths (S) 1. 2. 3. 4. SO Maxi-Maxi Strategy Strategies that use strengths to maximize opportunities. ST Maxi-Mini Strategy Strategies that use strengths to minimize threats. Internal Weaknesses (W) 1. 2. 3. 4. WO Mini-Maxi Strategy Strategies that minimize weaknesses by taking advantage of opportunities. WT Mini-Mini Strategy Strategies that minimize weaknesses and avoid threats. Source: Mindtools.com  [6]   Manager can develop these 4 strategies by answering: SO How can his firm use its strengths to take advantage of the opportunities? ST How can his firm take advantage of its strengths to avoid real and potential threats? WO How can his firm use its opportunities to overcome the weaknesses you are experienced? WT How can his firm minimize its weaknesses and avoid threats? Grand Strategy Matrix Grand Strategy Matrix can be used by firm to select applicable strategies from all 15 principal grand strategies base on evaluating of two dimensions: competitive position and market growth. The two dimensions of Grand Strategy Matrix make up a 4 quadrant axis. Quadrant I is for firms which have strong competition position and operate in rapid growth industry. Aggressive strategies like market penetration, market development, and product development strategies are effective choice for the firm to further promote its competitiveness. The firm can also choose vertical integration to acquire business of its supplier or customer if it has excessive resources. If the firm in this Quadrant is too heavily committed to a single product, it can reduce the risk by using concentric diversification to expand its business through acquiring or generating related business in term of technology, market or product. Quadrant II represents for firms that have a weak competitive position in a rapid growth industry. These firms must evaluate its present position to the marketplace and determine what make them to be ineffective in competing in the market. The firms should firstly apply intensive strategies like market penetration, market development, product development to improve it competitiveness. Using horizontal integration to acquire similar firm(s) operating at the same stage of the product-marketing chain is also a suitable alternative in case the firm lack of a distinctive competence or competitive advantage. In the worst case when there is no chance for competitiveness improvement, divestiture or liquidation should be considered. Quadrant III is for firms operate in slow-growth industries and have weak competitive position. To avoid of further lost or even bankruptcy, the firm must take drastic changes. Retrenchment should be the first strategy that the firm considers to cut cost or reduce asset. Other options for firms on this quadrant are divestiture or liquidation. Quadrant IV is for firms that have a strong competitive position but are in a slow growth industry. Diversification to more promising growth areas is the efficient strategy in this case. The firms can pursue concentric diversification strategy to expand its business to related areas or conglomerate diversification strategy to acquire business that not synergic to its current one but have high profit margin. Figure 7: Grand strategy Matrix Rapid Market growth Quadrant II Slow market growth Strong competition Position Weak competition Position Quadrant IV Quadrant I Quadrant III Source: Formulation, Implementation and Control of Competitive Strategy, Pearce/Robinson, 2000 Decision stage At this final stage of strategy formulation, Quantitative Strategic Planning Matrix (QSPM) is used to evaluate feasible alternative strategies identified in Stage 2 with input information from Stage 1. Evaluation through QSPM reveals the relative attractiveness of alternative strategies and thus it is base for selecting specific strategies. This technique allows top managers to assess alternative strategies objectively based on a firms internal strengths/weaknesses and external opportunities/threats (David, 1986). In QSPM, left column consists of key internal and external factors from Stage 1, and the top row includes feasible alternative strategies from Stage 2. Information of key internal/external factors and weight of each factors are extracted directly from the EFE Matrix and IFE Matrix. The top row of a QSPM includes alternative strategies derived from matrixes that used in Stage 2. These matching tools usually generate similar feasible alternatives (David, 2007). QSPM determines best strategy to the firms by calculating total attractiveness scores (Multiply Attractiveness Score with Weight of each factor for each alternative strategy) and sum Total Attractiveness Scores of each alternative strategy in the QSPM table. As mentioned above, weights of the internal and external factors are directly transferred from IFE and EFE matrix in Stage 2 and Attractiveness Scores (AS) are defined as quantitative values with 1 for not attractive, 2 for somewhat attractive, 3 for reasonably attractive, and 4 for highly attractive. Figure 8: Qualitative Strategic Planning Management (QSPM) model Internal factors Weight Strategy alternative Strategy 1 Strategy 2 AS TAS AS TAS 1 2 3 External factors 1 2 3 Total attractive core Total Attractiveness Scores will show the relative attractiveness of each optional strategy, considering the impact of the adjacent internal or external critical success factor. The higher the Total Attractiveness Score, the more attractive the strategic alternative is. The Sum Total Attractiveness Scores reveal most attractive strategy in each set of alternatives (Figure 8).

Forestry Management Essay -- essays research papers

Forestry Management in Nova Scotia The Canadian forest sector has been a strong and vital element of national and regional well being. Through the management, harvesting, processing and marketing of timber resources, Canada has developed a reputation of being one of the largest timber resources in the forest industry. However, to maintain this reputation and economic well being there are several issues to address in order to protect and sustain this renewable resource. This paper will focus on the management of the forestry sector, particularly Nova Scotia. It will discuss the initiatives and techniques used of both private wood-lot owners and large industries in developing and implementing a forest management strategy. Nova Scotia is comprised of many forested ecosystems; hardwoods, others with softwoods and some with a mixture of both species. In order to maintain and develop these various ecosystems it is important to know how forest management impacts not only the forest itself but also other ecosystems within. For example, a clear-cut harvest can be compared to the same impact of a forest fire. However, forest fires do not remove everything which clear-cutting does. Recently clear-cutting techniques have changed to benefit Nova Scotia ecosystems by leaving clumps of trees, snags, and strips of forest to provide travel ways for wildlife. Forestry is also investigating other related issues of ecosystem management. To create and maintain the diversity of trees with a region (i.e. Hardwood and softwood), landowners leave several stands of both young and old growth within natural forest stands to enhance the biodiversity and health of the forest site. Normally clearcutting results in the re-pla nting of tree seedlings, however some species (spruce, pine) overpower the growth of the hardwood trees. This minimizes the level of specie diversity among a timber stand. By allowing these older sections of stands to remain aids to the natural growth and development of hardwood species. Also, the wood debris, a remnant of old forest growth is essential to the survival of many forest species and also acts as a recycler of nutrients back into the soil. During forest harvesting it is not always necessary to remove all the wood from the lot. Rotten or older growth can be left to contribute to the nourishment of natural forests. &nb... ... Systems. Government of Canada. 3) Kaufert, Frank H. Forestry and Related Research in North America. 1995. Society of American Foresters. 4) MacAskill, Ken. 1997. Nova Scotia Forest Production Survey. Nova Scotia Natural Resources. Government document. 5) Natural Resources Canada. 1997. Criteria and Indicators of Sustainable forest management in Canada. Canadian Council of forest Ministers. 6) Nova Scotia Cooperation Agreement for Forestry Development. 1994. Nova Scotia's Forest Management Strategy. July 1994. Forestry Canada. 7) Nova Scotia Department of Lands and Forests. 1990. Canada / Nova Scotia Forest Resource Development Agreement 1982-1989 "An Overview." December 13, 1990. Forestry Canada. 8) Nova Scotia Natural Resources. 1997. Toward Sustainable Forestry. Government document. 9) Provincial Forest Practices Improvement Board. 1976. Our Forests. Nova Scotia Forestry Association.

Role of Ethics in the Life of an Engineering Student

As a college student for the last 2 years, if there is one important thing that I have learned, it is to follow the ethical guidelines of your school. Moreover, maintain the ethical code throughout the semester and more specifically for every course. Now, as an engineering student at The University of Texas at Tyler, I have an Engineering Code of Ethics to follow. This, in my opinion, is the closest to an actual professional code I have seen thus far. As a learned profession, engineering students are expected to show the upmost standards of integrity and honesty. Since this is the code that we will be following while providing services as an engineer, our complete honesty & fairness should be dedicated to the safety and welfare of the people. As an engineer, you are required to perform under a standard of professional behavior. It requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct. As students, we are to practice the Code of Ethics on both the college and the District level. Every student in the college/district is expected to represent himself respectfully, whether it is on paper or verbal. This representation calls for honesty of information on all forms, applications and official documentation. In addition, we are to behave respectfully faculty, staff, administrators, other students and visitors as we represent our college and district. Academic honesty and academic integrity are to be maintained at their highest standards. All of the student’s work should be original. No type of academic dishonesty is acceptable. This includes cheating or lying on any assignment, quiz or exam. Providing false information or making false statements is impermissible. Gaining an unfair advantage over other students by any means of cheating is also against the ethical conduct. Cheating furthermore includes plagiarism, which is when a student uses the ideas of another and declares it as his or her own. Students are required to properly cite the original source of the ideas and information used in his or her work. Students of the district are expected to adhere to the rules and regulations set by the District. Students are to be responsible for any costs of the damages resulting from their behavior. Furthermore, use of illegal drugs, prescription drugs and alcohol should be highly avoided. We shall also refrain from using language or acting in a manner that is disrespectful or inappropriate towards other students and members of college. This also includes sexual assault and harassment. Students must behave respectfully toward their peers and professors. In the classroom setting, students may not interrupt their classmates or professor, make fun of them or their expressed views, or disrupt the learning environment. It is important to maintain the best learning environment for all students and professors. The fundamental canons lay down general duties. For example, engineers are required to â€Å"hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public,† to â€Å"issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner,† to â€Å"act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents and trustees,† and to â€Å"avoid all conflicts of interest. † Each engineer stands to benefit from these requirements both as ordinary person and as engineer. The benefits for an engineer as ordinary person are obvious: As an ordinary person, an engineer is likely to be safer, healthier, and otherwise better off if engineers generally hold paramount the public safety, only make truthful public statements, and so on. How engineers stand to benefit as engineers is less obvious . Generally, all the ideas from the Code of Ethics for Engineers apply to an engineering student. Two fundamental canons that stand out are number 3 and 6. Number 3 states that public statements issued should be in an objective and truthful manner. This means that all reports and statements from an engineer should include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports, statements, or testimony, which should bear the date indicating when it was current. The same way an engineering student is responsible for stating correct information on his/her assignments and reports with the mention of the correct date and time of any analysis or experimentation involved. Number 6 states the engineer conduct themselves honorably, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession. This applies to engineering students as much because we are responsible for our own work and are expected to incorporate originality in our work. We should acknowledge our errors and shall not alter or distort the facts. We, as students, should look at the big picture and realize the long-term commitment to the field of engineering. Misrepresentation of any kind is unacceptable. A code of ethics is necessary in part because, without it, the self-interest of individual engineers, or even their selfless devotion to their employer, could lead them to harm everyone overall. The authors of a code of engineering ethics are all more or less rational persons. They differ from most other rational persons only in knowing what engineers must know in order to be engineers and in performing duties they could not perform but for that knowledge. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that their code of ethics would not require them to risk their own safety, health, or welfare, or that of anyone for whom they care, except for some substantial good. It also seems reasonable to suppose that no code they authored would include anything people generally consider immoral. Most engineers are probably morally decent people, unlikely to endorse an immoral rule. All scientific and engineering professions have a high standard of ethics. It is quite necessary, because many of the things scientists and engineers do affect both their own lives and those of the public as well. If a scientist reports a development from the laboratory incorrectly, it can even endanger someone's life. If an engineer cheats on a design, it can also cost lives. Similarly, all of us would be concerned about driving over a bridge built by an engineer who cheated in school. We have learned of a number of situations in recent years in which people have acted unethically and the results have been very bad for the people who trusted them. This is also the reason why new disciplines of engineering ethics are emerging all over colleges and universities. Handouts and instructor's guides in different courses in the electrical, civil and mechanical engineering departments are made mandatory to a student to have a good sense of. Understanding the Code of Ethics for Engineers as a convention between professionals, we can explain why engineers cannot depend on mere private conscience when choosing how to practice their profession, no matter how good that private conscience and why engineers should take into account what an organization of engineers has to say about what engineers should do. What conscience would tell us to do absent a certain convention is not necessarily what conscience would tell us given that convention. Insofar as a code of professional ethics is a kind of a morally permissible convention, it provides a guide to what engineers may reasonably expect of one another. It describes what the rules of the game are. Just as we must know the rules of baseball to know what to do with the ball, so we must know engineering ethics to know, for example, whether, as engineers, we should merely weigh safety against the wishes of our employer or instead give safety preference over those wishes. A code of ethics should also provide a guide to what we may expect other members of our profession to help us do The question now is why, all things considered, an engineer should obey her profession's code. We should begin by dismissing two alternatives some people find plausible. The obligations of an engineer do not seem to rest on anything so contingent as a promise, oath, or vow. So, the convention between professionals is not a contract. It is more like an obligation resting not on an actual agreement, but on what it is fair to require of someone given what he has voluntarily done, such as accepted the benefits that go with claiming to be an engineer. One way society has of saying things is through law. No law binds all engineers to abide by their profession's code. Of course, society has ways of saying things other than by law, for example, by public opinion. But it seems doubtful that the public knows enough about engineering to have an opinion on most matters of engineering ethics. After all, there have been both irrational laws, those requiring the use of outmoded techniques and immoral laws, those enforcing slavery. The public opinion supporting such laws could not have been much less irrational or immoral than the laws themselves. In conclusion, Engineers should not only do as their profession's code requires, but should also support it less directly by encouraging others to do as it requires and by criticizing, ostracizing, or otherwise calling to account those who do not. They should support their profession's code in these ways for at least four reasons: First, engineers should support their profession's code because supporting it will help protect them and those they care about from being injured by what other engineers do. Second, supporting the code will also help assure each engineer a working environment in which it will be easier than it would otherwise be to resist pressure to do much that the engineer would rather not do. Third, engineers should support their profession's code because supporting it helps make their profession a practice of which they need not feel morally justified embarrassment, shame, or guilt. And fourth, one has an obligation of fairness to do his part insofar as he claims to be an engineer and other engineers are doing their part in generating these benefits for all engineers.

Travis Hirschi Social Bond Theory

Protected* Populations – Examples include, but are not limited to: Children/Minors (under the age of 18) (Exception – projects conducted in established or commonly accepted educational settings involving normal educational practices. Contact IRB office for guidance. ) Prisoners (now includes non-publicly available secondary data) Pregnant women Fetuses and products of labor and delivery People with diminished capacity to give consent Mentally or physically challenged individuals *Sensitive Information – Examples include, but are not limited to: Information relating to an individual’s psychological well being or mental health Information relating to sexual attitudes, preferences, or practices Information relating to the use of alcohol or drugs Information relating to illegal behavior Information that if released could reasonably place the individual at risk of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the individual’s financial standing, employability, or reputation Information that would normally be recorded in a patient’s medical record and the disclosure could reasonably lead to discrimination, stigmatization, etc. There are several categories of protected subjects. Children – Subpart D of the federal regulations protecting human subjects, incorporated in Georgetown's policies, provides additional protections for children. Research with children as subjects can be exempt in only two instances: {text:list-item} {text:list-item} Prisoners – Subpart C to the governing regulations provides additional safeguards for prisoners as research subjects. Essentially, the regulations are designed to discourage the use of prisoners as subjects unless the research will materially affect the lives of prisoners. They are not, in other words, to be used as a captive population. An IRB that reviews a protocol with prisoners as subjects must have a prisoner representative on the committee. 3. A. Children Children are considered to be protected because their youth may make full understanding of the risks and benefits of a study impossible, making them unable to make a truly informed decision. Recognizing that regulations may vary from state to state and country to country, the IRB defines a child as any individual under the age of 18. If a study will occur in an area where different legal definitions exist, the researcher should incorporate this information into the proposal if he or she is seeking a waiver of requirements for this protected population. If the subjects of a study will be children, the researcher is expected to respect each child as an autonomous being. Consequently, the researcher must secure the assent of each child as well as the consent of the child’s parents / guardians or legal representatives. If a child cannot read, the consent process will need to be adapted to provide the information orally. Documentation of the child’s assent and the consent of parents or guardians must follow the guidelines for informed consent. Each class of subjects that one might consider to be incompetent, such as young children, should be considered on their own terms. â€Å"Respect† requires giving them the opportunity to choose whether to participate to the extent they are able to make a decision. Researchers are not required to obtain a child’s assent if the child is incapable of providing it. Each individual child’s ability to assent must be determined. In other words, researchers cannot assume that all children below a certain age are unable to assent. Even a very young child may be capable of understanding what is proposed and thus can agree or decline to participate. In rare instances, a child’s assent may not be required if the intervention or procedure is likely to benefit the well-being of the child directly and is available only in the context of the research. This situation occurs most frequently in biomedical research. In determining whether children are capable of assenting, the IRB will take into account the ages, maturity, and psychological state of the children involved. This judgment may be made for all children to be involved in research under a particular protocol, or for each child, as the IRB deems appropriate. When interacting with children, use language the child can understand and present concepts in a way the child can grasp. Researchers should also take care that the child does not feel pressured by the researcher as an adult (authority figure) or by the child’s parent, guardian, or legal representative—other authority figures. In studies that involve more than minimal risk, obtain consent from both parents, if possible. (See â€Å"Studies with *Children*—More than Minimal Risk. â€Å") For minimal risk studies, consent from one parent is sufficient. Consent from one parent is also permitted if a parent is deceased, unknown, incompetent, or not reasonably available, or if one parent has legal responsibility for the care and custody of the child. In the absence of a parent or parents able to give consent, consent may be given by a child’s legal guardian or legal representative. Children who are wards of the state or of any agency, institution, or other entity may participate in research only if the study (1) is related to the children’s status as wards, or (2) will be conducted in schools, camps, hospitals, institutions, or similar settings in which the majority of children involved as subjects are not wards (that is, the fact that an individual subject is a ward is incidental). In these situations, researchers must provide for the appointment of an advocate for each child who is a ward. The advocate is in addition to the child’s guardian or legal representative, and he or she must have the background and experience necessary to act in the best interests of the child for the duration of the child’s participation in the research. An individual may serve as advocate for more than one child; the advocate may not be associated in any way with the proposed research, the researcher(s), or the child’s guardian organization. (See 45CFR46, Subpart D. )